The Gift of Magi Essay Example for Free

The Gift of Magi Essay Country Lovers Alyssa Helm English 125 Instructor: David Makhanlall November 7, 2011 Themes: The Gift of Magi It is always great to read stories where the author is able to show love between two characters. â€Å"The Gift of Magi† was a great example of this. This story showed how a couple’s love was so strong between the two, that they were able to give up their most prize possessions for one another. â€Å"The Gift of Magi† allows the reader to be able to relate to this love story with a heartwarming theme of love vs. material things. As a reader reading this story there were a lot of themes or meanings that this story has. A theme: â€Å"it is not a statement about a dominant impression or mood; it is not a moral or proposition; it is not the attitude of the writer. Theme is more complex than any of these elements of fiction; it cant be defined in a single word† (Clugston, R. W. (2010). The most important would be showing the limits a person would go for someone that they love, even if it means giving up the most important thing to them. Della, with only $1. 7, wanted to make sure that she was able to provide her husband with what she felt would be the best Christmas gift. Della considered her long, brown hair as one of her most prized possessions. But, when it came down to her hair or getting her husband Jim a Christmas gift she did not think twice about cutting it. The twenty dollars that the woman offered her at the hair shop seemed to be just enough for her to be able to purchase the perfect gift. Ther e were many literary elements that contributed to the theme of this story. The first one would be symbols. There are two main symbols that are represented in this story. This would be Della’s long brown hair and her husband Jim’s gold watch. . Had the queen of Sheba lived in the flat across the airshaft, Della would have let her hair hang out the window some day to dry just to depreciate Her Majestys jewels and gifts. Had King Solomon been the janitor, with all his treasures piled up in the basement, Jim would have pulled out his watch every time he passed, just to see him pluck at his beard from envy(Clugston, R. W. (2010). These two things are focused on the most in this story. The end result in this story has a twist on it. Della and Jim both bought things to compliment each other’s prized possessions. The focus was mainly put on Della’s hair however at the end of the story it reveals how her husband Jim had sold his watch so that he was able to purchase the hair barrettes that she couldn’t use now because she cut her hair. Della didn’t know what reaction she would get from her husband, she even went home to style her now short hair so that it maybe her husband would accept her drastic cut. The couple did this only to find out at the end of the story that they both got rid of what was most important so they could buy each other a gift for the holidays. The second literary element that would contribute to this them would be the point of view. This story was told in third person. This means that the story contained a narrator. â€Å"Its important to remember that the narrator, whether a character inside the story or one looking on from outside the action, is a voice invented by the author for the purposes of the story. Clugston, R. W. (2010). I feel like with this story it helps set the mood and was able to allow the reader to sympathize with the couple. I say this because the narrator is able to describe in full detail the feelings of each character. We are able to see things that we would not if the character had been telling the story. The narrator is able to provide us with full detail about each facial expression, or feeling that is told. Although this couple was only trying to make sure they each had something for Christmas, I feel like if they had communication they would have been able to avoid losing items that meant the most to them. I totally understand how much it means to be able to buy your loved one something on a holiday, but it’s not always about materialistic things as you have each other. Reference Page 1) Clugston, R. W. (2010). Journey into Literature.

The Malaysian Tobacco Industry

The Malaysian Tobacco Industry CHAPTER 1 The Malaysian tobacco industry is a copious industry which comprehends leaf production and curing, product manufacturing to product marketing and distribution. Tobacco is the countrys most widely cultivated non-food crop (British American Tobacco Malaysia). Malaysia is not considered as a large tobacco leaf producer by world standards. Neither is a major contributor to the Malaysian economy. However, tobacco farmers are used politically by the tobacco industry. According to a study conducted by Ernst and Young in June 2005 for the Confederation of Malaysian Tobacco Manufacturers, the industry contributes extensively to the countrys economy with more than 190,000 people depending on it for employment in 2003. Tobacco production has increased due to a rise in the demand for tobacco from cigarette manufacturers. (See Table 1.0) 1.1 Impact of Tobacco Use Cigarette demand has long been a crucial issue and has become especially prominent in the wake of the recent colossal settlements between government and cigarette companies ( Huang and Chin, 2006). According to the press statement by the Minister of Health, the Hon Dato Chua Jui Meng on Tobacco Control in Malaysia on 7th November 1996, cigarette smoking is an avoidable addiction which hold responsible for a massive 25% of all deaths in Malaysia. Smoking is a deadly and expensive pastime which is dangerous to both smokers and the second hand smokers (Costa and Mossialos,2006). Studies showed that 30% of cancer deaths and 90% of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease in Malaysia were associated to smoking (The Star). According to World Health Organization (WHO), tobacco is going to be the biggest cause of death in the world if current pattern of smoking continue, with no changes in cessation rates or significant declines in initiation rates by 2020. There are more than one billion smoke rs in the world and 5.4 million people were killed by tobacco use a year. Moreover, smoking is not only destroying the health of the smoker but it is also an economic burden. These include primarily direct or indirect medical costs to the smokers and also productivity losses. Indoor places where smoking is allowed will incur a higher renovation and cleaning costs. The management will have to pay a lot to maintain the cleanliness in the workplaces. Furthermore, it increased the risk of fire and may acquire higher insurance premiums. Since the first report on tobacco by Surgeon General was released in 1964, awareness relative to the negative effects of tobacco use has increased. Smoking cigarettes during pregnancy can cause impromptu miscarriage, underweight babies and premature delivery. Most importantly, it will also cause sudden infant death (SID) syndrome. At the same time, it is also very dangerous for the people who do not smoke but breathing in a smoke-filled room. Second-hand smoke is a major source of indoor air pollution which can damage the health of both the children and adults. There are almost half of the worlds children breathe second-hand smoke today. In recent times, the smokers are increasing from day to day (See Table1.1). Despite of all the negative effects, smokers dont seem to be affected by the side effects. Teenage smoking is a severe problem in Malaysia and according to the World Tobacco Marketfile, the number of youth smokers are increasing (See Table 1.2). The risk of youth commencing tobacco use by socio-demographic, environmental and personal factors is increasing. Family with low socioeconomic status is an example of socio-demographic factor. There are more young people who smoke nowadays because tobacco products are easily accessible and available everywhere. Young people who are lack of parental guidance will be easily influenced by peers. These are the examples of environmental risks factor. While personal risk factors include low self-esteem and the belief that tobacco use provides an advantage which can help them to reduce stress. People who get older should understand the danger of smoking better than the youth . They should be able to experience the side effects if they have been smoking for quite some time. Some people may not be aware of the specific health risks of tobacco use as they are not exposed to the side effects. If the smokers are aware of the dangers of tobacco, most want to quit. 1.2 Governments Regulation towards Cigarette Demand The Malaysian government has done various efforts and implemented regulations restricting people to smoke. Government policy is divided into price and tax measures; and also non-price measures such as Protection from exposure to tobacco smoke; Regulation of contents of tobacco product; Regulation of tobacco product disclosures; Packaging and labelling of tobacco products; Education, communication, training and public awareness; Tobacco advertising, promotion and sponsorship; and Tobacco cessation (Zain, 2007). National Tobacco Control Program is one of the strategies taken to reduce tobacco use. The general objective of this program is to provide comprehensive support and assistance to help smokers quit smoking. The programs include legislative control; health promotion and public advocacy; tobacco tax policy; smoking cessation services; research, monitoring and evaluation; multi-sectoral collaboration and capacity building. In legislative control, under the section on the Prohibition on Tobacco Product Advertisement of Control of Tobacco Product Regulations 2004 restricts printing, publishing or distributing of any tobacco product advertisement. It bans on cigarette advertisement on television and radio. Health warning messages are placed on every cigarette pack to raise peoples awareness. Furthermore, government has legislated smoke-free policy in Malaysia to curb smoking. There is total ban on smoking in government meetings. Places like health and educational facilities, governmental offices, public transport, shopping complex, cinemas and places of worship are smoke-free zone. Besides that, health promotion and advocacy covers campaigns such as Tak Nak Campaign; Healthy Lifestyle Campaign; Kempen Nafas Baru Bermula Ramadhan; World No Tobacco Day and also events by other agencies. On top of that, government also introduce excise duties on imported cigarette and further increase in sales and import tax . Increase tax will reduce the consumption on cigarettes without negative impact on revenue. At the same time, National Smoking Cessation Program was introduced to provide comprehensive support and assistance to help smokers to quit smoking. Under this program, it helps to inform and educate the smokers regarding the advantages of quitting smoking. Government has created a lot of awareness program to help people to quit smoking and the most effective strategy to reduce smoking is raising the price of the cigarettes. So as all these efforts and accumulation of knowledge are done, the demand for cigarettes and smoking should be reducing. 1.3 Problem Statement Tobacco use in Malaysia has escalated over the past years in spite of the numerous health warnings. Despite the various implementations of mass anti-smoking campaigns by the government, smoking is still a popular activity among the people. In the past there is a lot of domino effect of smoking leading to health problems yet it can seem surprising that some people still choose to smoke. Tobacco users still continue with it in pursuance of the risks or the expense because smoking is a habit hard to break for the reason that it contains an addictive drug called nicotine. In addition to that, the effect will be amplified this time around as the price of cigarettes increase simultaneously. Subsequently, the price affects the middle and lower income group of wage earner adversely because smoking is an expensive activity. The rising of cigarettes price will cause them to be overburdened by the rising living cost. People start smoking for a variety of different reasons. Although most of the people is aware that smoking is dangerous and harmful to the people around them but there are still 40-50 new smokers created everyday and the smoking popularity among the youth are increasing. There is about 9 out of 10 smokers start before the age of 18 years old (See Table 1.2). Most of the youth started to smoke as an act of rebellion and also because of peers pressure. The teenagers may not be conscious about the effects but it will become apparent later on in their life. Furthermore, survey has shown that the trend of young female smokers is increasing at such an alarming rate. According to the statistics by Healthy Living, it shows that there are 22% of smoker ages around 18 to 24 years old, 22.8% of smoker ages around 25 to 44 years old, 21% of smoker ages around 45 to 64 years old and 8% of smoker ages above 65 years old. 1.4 Research Question The questions arise in this study is: Will the people above the age of 65 years old decrease the consumption of cigarettes? Will the implementation of the government policy towards the cigarettes reduce the number of smokers in Malaysia 1.5 Objectives of the Study The general objective of this study is to determine the demand for cigarettes. More specific, this study tends to Determine the price and income elasticity towards the demand for cigarettes. Determine the impact of demand for cigarettes on aging population. 1.6 Significance of the Study This research on the aging population is important in the attempt to reduce the overall demand for cigarettes in Malaysia. This study will test the level of awareness of population of Malaysia on the impact of smoking between different age groups. Most of the diseases caused by tobacco use will only be noticeable when the users reach the later stage in life. This study will justify why policy makers should take into consideration people of all age groups when coming up with new policies regarding tobacco use, instead of focusing only on the younger population. CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW This chapter is to review the existing literature on the demand for cigarette. There is a large volume of published studies describing the price and income elasticity on cigarette consumption. Furthermore, there is also a large and growing body of literature has investigated the effects of taxes and anti-smoking regulations on the demand for cigarettes. So far, there are only a few studies regarding the relationship between aging population and the consumption of cigarette. 2.1 Theoretical Studies of Demand for Cigarettes The law of demand is an important law in microeconomic theory. In theoretical economics, economists develop models to explore economic activity and outcomes. Reliable statements about economic behavior enable the prediction of probable effects of specific actions. The law of demand is an economic law that states that, all other factors being equal, as the price of good increases, demand for the good will decrease. This law summarizes the effect price changes have on consumer behavior. The negative relationship between price and quantity demanded is caused by two reasons. One of the reasons is the income and substitution effects. Income effect means that for a lower price product, a consumer can buy more than they could at the higher price point. Other similar products now seem more expensive compared to the lower priced product is the substitution effect. The second reason is the diminishing marginal utility for the inverse relationship between price and quantity demanded. Consumers get less satisfaction from each additional unit of product they consume over a specified period of time. They will only continue to buy if the price is reduced at each point. By increasing the real price of tobacco, a tax increase has colossal potential to be an effective policy lever to decrease tobacco consumption. The impact of taxes on tobacco consumption depends on the extent to which changes in taxes are reflected in tobacco prices and the responsiveness of consumers to changes in prices. People tend to reduce their consumption on tobacco use as the price increase. The demand functions show that cigarette consumption is related to the price of cigarettes, prices of related goods, income, and individuals tastes. A general conclusion from the precious studies is that tobacco prices and the demand are inversely related. Marshall illustrated the law of demand with both a table and a demand curve by assuming that the period of time is sufficiently short to justify a ceteris paribus assumption. 2.2 Empirical Studies of Demand for Cigarettes Several studies conducted have reported that there is an inverse relationship between the price and cigarette consumption and positive effect of income. Franke (1994) reveals that Granger Causality is significant from price and income to cigarette consumption in the United States. No significant change is observed in the estimated demand elasticity which occurred during the period studied. In order to test a model of the demand for cigarettes in the United States from the period of 1961 to 1990, he uses quarterly data and multiple analyses. The outcome of the study illustrates a positive effect of income and negative effects on price. Likewise, Zheng, Zhu and Li (2008), in a separate study also finds that there is indeed a positive income elasticity but negative cigarette price elasticity based on the best fixed-effects spatial-temporal model. They construct a demand equation to study on the elasticity of per pack cigarette price and per capita disposable income in 2008. This is done by considering the cigarette demand in a spatial panel of 46 states of the United States over a period of 30 years which ranged from 1963 to 1992. They then propose a new spatial panel model and implement a fully Bayesian approach for model parameter inference and prediction of cigarette demand at future time points using the Markov chain Monte Carlo (MCMC) algorithms. Chaloupka et al. (2002) examines data from documents of the tobacco industry to discover what tobacco companies know of the impact that cigarette prices has on smoking among youth, young adults and also adults. They assess on how this understanding would affect their pricing and price related marketing plans. The tobacco company documents provides velar evidence on the consequence of change in cigarette prices on cigarette smoking habits, relating how tax and other increases in price led to significant decline in smoking, predominantly among the younger people. They conclude that future efforts towards tobacco control which targets to increase prices and limit price related marketing efforts are critical in achieving reductions in tobacco use and public health toll caused by tobacco. This view is supported by Fernà ¡ndez et al. (2004) which shows that between the period of 1965 and 2000, there is indeed an inverse relation between the prices and consumption of cigarette in Spain, wh ich indicates that involvement at the economic level, for instance real increases in price may have an important public health impact in control of tobacco. Correspondingly, Gallus et al. (2006) present a similar study to determine the influence that cigarette prices has on tobacco consumption in Italy. A survey is conducted on 3050 individuals aged 15 and above which suggests that prices had an intermediate to high influence on cigarette consumption in the young. Younger people as well as less educated smokers are more susceptible to an influence of prices. They conclude that cigarette prices have substantial influence on tobacco consumption in the younger people. On the contrary, Raptou et al (2005) argues that cigarette demand is extremely insensitive to changes in price. They employ data collected via questionnaires which was administered by personal-in-home interviews and estimate a two part model of cigarette demand (Cragg, J. G. B Some Statistical Models for Limited Dependent Variables with Application to the Demand for Durable Goods, Econometrica, 39, 5, 1971, pp. 829Y44). They conclude that cigarette price measures would not affect cigarette demand. However, it is discovered that smoking restrictions in workplace areas as well as educational establishments, and also most of the psychosocial variables will affect the demand of cigarette. According to Huang and Yang (2006), current estimates of the income elasticity to cigarette demand have shown a troubling result which is nearly zero or sometimes negative income elasticity. They engage in a four-regime panel model (dynamic fixed effect) which is use to predict the function of cigarette demand within the United States with intentions to investigate the nonlinearity embedded in the cigarette demand structure. They apply a multi-regime model to 47 states using data from 1963 to 1997. They claim that there is a nonlinear relationship between personal income and cigarette consumption. Evidently, as income rises, cigarette has become an inferior good. The results from the four-regime model suggest that income elasticity is negative when per capita income is greater than US$ 8,568 but become is positive though insignificant when income is above US$ 18,196. In the income ranging from US$ 8,568 and US$ 18,196, the income elasticity is significantly negative. There is a nonli near relationship which prevailed for the price elasticity. Furthermore, Martinez, Mejia, and Estable (2008) claims that the demand for cigarettes in Argentina over the long term is influenced by the changes in real average price and real income of the cigarettes in Argentina. They analyse the data based on monthly time-series data between the periods of 1994 to 2004. The results that they obtain show that when the prices are increased at 120%, a maximum of revenues from the cigarettes tax can be attained and also there is a big effect on the reduction of the total consumption of cigarettes within the country. Similarly, Abedian (2000) also states that there is an inverse relationship between the price and consumption of any good which include cigarettes. This negative relationship is further affected by other factors such as income levels and the degree of addiction. He argues that increasing tobacco consumption is a problem faced in a developing country and it could bring harm to the people. He also argues that there are no adverse economic consequences following such policy framework. In 2000, Joni Hersch in his studies states that smoking behavior relates to the changes in price, which is not unlike many other economic commodities. He finds that a higher price would reduce demand for cigarettes in both men and women with regard to smoking participation and cigarette consumption levels, with elasticity ranging from -0.40 to -0.60. In distinction to other studies, he finds that the price elasticity is alike for both men and women. Income also has negative effects on smoking behavior. He also states that excise tax policies can dissuade smoking, but their effects will be largely restricted to the low income segment of the population. This finding suggests that there might be constructive responses by smokers to informational efforts which warn about the dangers of smoking and also the environmental tobacco smoke poses to others, especially when it is a member of ones household. Further observations suggest that increase in taxes also play an essential role in reducing cigarette consumption. Following recent years, there has been a growing amount of literature on higher prices that result from increased tax leading to significant reductions in cigarette smoking. A recent study by Chaloupka et al (2010) which performs to supply empirical evidence on the consequence of the cigarette excise tax structure towards three outcomes which are the government revenue, cigarette prices, and cigarette consumption. A cross-sectional time-series data for 21 European Union (EU) countries is composed from year 1998 to 2007 out of various data resources. The estimates suggest that the greater reliance on the ad valorem excise tax leads to lower average cigarette prices and larger price gaps between premium and low-priced cigarette brands. In addition, these impacts from the tax structure are smaller in more concentrated or less competitive markets. They also propose that a la rger reliance on a specific tax will have a greater impact on cigarette smoking, but the impact lessens with the growth of manufacturers market power. In view of this, Peng and Ross (2009) estimates the Ukraine population in its sensitivity to prices of cigarettes and the cigarettes affordability using the macro level data with the aim to compute the efficiency of cigarette tax policy. They use a monthly time-series data from 1997 to 2006 in Ukraine to estimate the generalized least square (GLS) model with an AR(1) process. The result shows that the cigarette price is not significantly associated with legal domestic sale of cigarette. Higher household income and more active outdoor advertising have positive and significant impact on cigarette sales. There is also a positive relationship between the affordability for cigarette and legal domestic cigarette sales. Increasing the cigarette excise tax by 10% would increase the price of cigarettes by 3%. This shows that cigarette tax policy can be used to regulate cigarette price in Ukraine. The people are found to be relatively insensitive to cigarette prices and cigarette taxes, even t hough of low magnitude, but the effect of cigarettes affordability is significant statistically. Similarly, Lee et al. (2005) concludes that price elasticity of cigarettes is approximated to be less than one, which implies that the tax will have some result in reducing cigarette consumption, although it will also generate further tax revenues. Moreover, Hidayat and Thabrany (2010) study the demand for cigarettes in Indonesia using a myopic addiction model and uses it to analyse the price elasticity of cigarette demand. They use an aggregated panel data structured from three waves of the Indonesian Family Life Survey over the period of 1993 to 2000. They claim that the short run and long run price elasticity of cigarette demand are estimated to be at -0.28 and -0.73 correspondingly. Price increases have a significantly negative impact on cigarette consumption. Increasing cigarette prices via excise taxes can control tobacco use and thus raise government revenue. They then conclude that excise taxes are more likely an efficient tobacco control rather than a key source of government revenue in the long run. Besides that, Lee (2008) conduct a study which analyses the readiness of current smokers to stop the smoking habit or reduce the consumption of cigarettes when experiencing an increase in tax of NT $22 per pack, which is a consequent rise of 44%. Lee uses cross-sectional study on 483 valid questionnaires conducted during a telephone survey from April to July 2004, targeting current smokers aging 15 years and above, around the 23 major cities in Taiwan. The methods that he uses to measure the elasticity in cigarette demand are the Tobit regression model and also the maximum likelihood method, and estimation results shows a price elasticity of -0.29 following the 44% increase in the cigarette price. Interestingly, the most significant response to the increase in price was found among women, smokers with low salary, smokers who are only moderately addicted, and smokers who purchase low priced cigarettes. Lee concludes that the smokers are relatively insensitive to a hike in cigarette pr icing, since the prices of cigarettes are low in Taiwan. Thus, a marginal increase in cigarette tax would consequently reduce cigarette consumption and thus also increase the cigarette tax revenue of the government and the income of cigarette merchants effectively. This result is consistent with the findings of previous studies by Townsend (1996) and Sissoko (2002) which reflects that the price has a major effect on cigarette consumption and consequently diseases caused by smoking, especially in low income groups. Progressive rise in cigarette tax rates offer a powerful contribution to policy for reducing cigarette consumption and generating extra government revenue. Consequently, when Ross and Al-Sadat (2007) evaluate income elasticity and the price on cigarette demand and also the effect of cigarette taxes towards cigarette demand and cigarette tax revenue within Malaysia, they find that income is positively connected to cigarette consumption. A 1% rise in real income boosts cigarette consumption by 1.46%. They use time series regression analysis for 1990 to 2004 applying the error-correction model. The per-capita consumption of domestic and imported cigarettes is calculated using the excise tax and import duties collected by the Malaysian government and the size of the adult population which are aged above 15 years old. The model estimates that a rise in cigarette excise tax from RM 1.60 to RM 2 per pack will effectively reduce cigarette consumption in Malaysia by 3.37%. They conclude that taxation is an effectual means for reducing cigarette consumption and deaths linked to tobacco while bringing up the revenue for the Malaysian government. According to Huang, Yang, and Hwang (2004), future cigarette consumptions will depend entirely on tax share, price and income elasticity of remaining heavy smoker. They use a panel unit root test to calculate the demand for cigarettes over the period of 1961 to 2002 for 42 states including Washington D.C. The cigarette data in this study is obtained from The Tax Burden on Tobacco published by the Tobacco Institute. They find that price and income elasticity are approximately -0.41 and 0.06. Other than that, a decrease in tax elasticity leads to decreasing price elasticity, and smaller tax shares seems to be interconnected to declining tax elasticity. This study shows an interesting implication, whereby cigarette consumption is a normal good to transfer payment recipients and wage earners, which however is an inferior good to the elderly population and stocks owners. In 2002, Hu and Mao examine a policy dilemma in China on public health against the tobacco economy through added cigarette tax. In order to analyse the impact of tobacco consumption and production towards government revenue and also to the entire economy, they use published data from 1980 to 1997. Imposition of cigarette tax increase will have a significant impact in generating extra central government revenue and reducing cigarette consumption. Therefore, increasing additional tax on cigarettes will be beneficial to the Chinese government from both the financial and public health perspective. Levy, Cummings, and Hyland (2000) use a simulation model to evaluate the effects of taxes on the smoking rate and smoking induced deaths. The method they use in their study projects the number of smokers and smoking attributable deaths from a baseline year of 1993. They find that increase in taxes is to reduce the percentage of the total population that smokes. Youth groups experiences greater effects. The effects of a tax hike tends to increase over time as younger individuals who are more responsive to price increase grows older, but federal and state taxes on cigarettes are currently set at a fixed amount per unit. Moreover, the price of cigarettes falls comparative to the purchasing power of the population as wages increase. These effects grow over time and lead to a substantial savings in lives and health care cost. Lanoie and Leclair (1998) investigate the relative ability of two anti-smoking policies which are taxes and regulations, in inducing a decline in cigarette consumption and in providing incentives to quit smoking. Based on a Canadian data over the period of 1980 to 1995, the results show that cigarette demand react to taxes with the elasticity of -0.28, not regulation. This result implies that the policies are both acting in a corresponding fashion to influence the incidence of smoking. In addition to that, Galbraith and Kaiserman (1997) analyses Canadian cigarette taxation and consumption within the period of 1980 and 1994. During that period, there is a large price rise and decline, and a dramatic increase in the consumption of the contraband tobacco products. In their study, they examine the elasticity of legal cigarette sales and total sales which include contraband with respect to the price of legal cigarettes and various other factors. They conclude that price elasticity regarding demand towards cigarettes tends to increase in absolute value over time, making taxation an increasing strong instrument with which to influence smoking behavior. In considering untaxed sales as well, it becomes clear that the sensitivity of total cigarette sales to the taxation instrument is much lower than would otherwise appear, and has fallen obviously. According to Meier and Licari (1997), a rise in federal tax is more successful than increases in state taxes in reducing tobacco use. Cigarette consumption drops when labels with health warnings were added. They use a pooled time-series analysis from the period of 1955 to 1994 with 50 states as units of the study. The effect of excise taxes on cigarette consumption for numerous different models and econometric techniques is asset to analyse the usefulness of state and federal taxes in bringing down the consumption of cigarettes and estimate the effect of government health warnings. Their study also shows how warnings and taxes interact. Tobacco control programs also has some impact towards the consumption of cigarettes as stated by Farrelly, Pechacek and Chaloupka (2003) that increase in tobacco control program expenditures reduce cigarette sales. Additionally, in reviewing the evidence on the effectiveness of comprehensive tobacco control programs, the recent Surgeon Generals Report on Reducing Tobacco Use concludes that comprehensive tobacco control programs work. Although these studies consistently suggest that state tobacco control programs decrease tobacco use, these studies can easily be confounded by changes in excise taxes, cross-border sales, and other factors. Nevertheless, Leu (1984) reveals that anti smoking advertisements in Switzerlands mass media has a significant permanent effect on cigarette consumption. It is a powerful instrument to reduce cigarette consumption. He claims that extended publicity, following the 1964 US Surgeon Generals Report, accompanying various tax increases which preceded by a public vote on an advertising ban for tobacco products, helps reduce consumption permanently by a total of 11%. It is also supported by Keeler et al (1993) who examine the impact of income, taxes, prices, and anti smoking policy on the consumption of cigarettes in California. They use a monthly time-series data throughout 1980 to 1990. He also declares that the effect of the increase in tax in the long run will be to decrease cigarette consumption. Anti-smoking regulations decreases cigarette consumption, and thus, it shows that consumers behave consistently with the model of rational addiction. CHAPTER 3 METHODOLOGY This chapter is to describe on the methods used in this study and the collection of data. It also explains the procedures used in collecting the data and the measurement of the variables. Thus, it provides a summary of expected result of the study. 3.1 Data types A time series data is used for the empirical analysis in this study. The data is collected annually over the period of 1998 to 2008. The types of data obtained are real price of cigarette, real income per capita, cigarette consumption, and also the aging population. 3.2 Data Source The secondary data is collected from the previous studies by other researchers. Mainly, the sources of data are from Departme

Chilli Peppers and the Southeast Asian Identity

Chilli Peppers and the Southeast Asian Identity Introduction Chilli peppers are an integral part of Southeast Asian cuisine today. Many people associate chilli so closely with Southeast Asian cuisines that some shops in Western countries selling Southeast Asian food have had to add excessive amounts of chilli to their food in order to cater to what foreigners think is Southeast Asian food. However, chilli peppers were actually introduced into Southeast Asia a little less than 500 years. Therefore, they are not an indigenous aspect of Southeast Asian cuisine but rather a product of globalisation. Yet today, Southeast Asian cuisines display a penchant for chillieswith almost every cuisine claiming a variation of a chilli condiment (Williams, 2010, p. 41). In this essay, the key issues will be to explore why chillies became so popular in Southeast Asian in the first place and how their importance has evolved over the years to make them an integral part of Southeast Asian identity through the means of cuisine. Firstly, we will look at the history of chilli peppers and how they were brought into the Southeast Asian region. Secondly, we will see what Southeast Asian cuisine was like before chilli peppers became such an integral part of it. Thirdly, we will explore why chilli peppers caught on so quickly as part of the indigenous cuisine. Lastly, I will argue that the role of chilli has evolved in Southeast Asian cuisine and today, its popularity transcends culinary trends to form an integral part of Southeast Asian identity. The History of Chilli The colonial powers and the prevalence of trade in the Southeast Asian region were the key factors in introducing chilli peppers to the cuisines of Southeast Asian. Chilli peppers were the indigenous plants of the Americas from 6000 BC. SEA Cuisine before Chilli Southeast Asian cuisine before the introduction of chilli already indicated a local preference for spicy food. In Thailand, people were seasoning their food with ginger and peppercorns. This preference for spicy food might be an indication of local conditions that made the region more susceptible or accommodating of spicy food. Unsurprisingly, when the Portuguese introduced chilli peppers to the regions in the 1500s, the Thai were the quickest to adapt them into their food. The Prevalence of Chilli in SEA Cuisine The prevalence of chilli in SEA cuisine after its introduction to the region less than 500 years ago is the result of a combination of factors that include sociological reasons, culinary reasons, scientific reasons and geographical reasons. It is hard to explain the popularity of chilli in the region due to biology. Recent studies have indicated that Asians 25% more likely than people of other races to be supertasters. Supertasters are more sensitive to certain tastes and Asians would therefore be more prone to experiencing the burn of capsaicin through chilli consumption. Yet despite this ethnic trait, the prevalence of chilli in SEA cuisine exceeds that of European or American cuisine. I argue that the popularity of chilli in the region can be explained by a confluence of factors exclusive to SEA countries. Firstly, rice is a staple food in all the SEA countries. SEA countries today are responsible for a larger than proportionate share of the global rice export market, with countries like Thailand and Vietnam being famous for rice planting. In the past, many people in SEA countries survived through subsistence farming and rice was a staple food because it was cheap and filling. Even when rice was not eaten, people substituted it with rice-based products like rice noodles. By making rice a staple part of the SEA diet, people could reduce their consumption of expensive meats and vegetables and therefore, lower the cost of their meals. With the introduction of chilli in the region, people began adding it into their meats and vegetables to give it extra spiciness. The extra spiciness of the meats and vegetables meant that the amount of meat and vegetables for meals could be further reduced since people ended up eating more rice to reduce the burn of the capsaicin from the chillies. By addin g a relatively cheap ingredient like chilli to their dishes, SEA people could therefore reduce their consumption of more expensive foodstuffs, thus explaining the prevalence of chilli in the cost-conscious SEA region. Secondly, chillies were adapted into a region which was already trying different methods to deal with food spoilage. In countries with landlocked areas and muddy rivers, it was not always easy to obtain the freshest of ingredients for the preparation of food. Vegetables grown in certain areas took on a weird taste and often contributed to what many people would consider unpalatable dishes in a meal. In a time with no refrigeration, it was not always possible to consume food before it started going bad in the hot and humid weather, which meant that rotting food was always a possibility during meals. To reduce food spoilage, fermentation of food (like shrimp paste) and sun drying ingredients (ie fish) had become a popular aspect of SEA cooking during this time. However, the resulting dried ingredients were more pungent and had a stronger taste than before and when added back into cooked food, could make it taste less palatable. With the introduction of chilli peppers into food cooked w ith dried ingredients, Southeast Asian cooks were able to Thirdly, recent studies have shown that chilli-based cuisine is popular because it promotes the release of endorphins. The capsaicin in chilli peppers have been found to promote endorphin release in the human brain in order to deal with the burn of spicy food, thus making a torturously spicy meal paradoxically pleasurable. In Britain, researchers were looking into the popularity of curry in the United Kingdom and they concluded that the reason curry had grown so popular was because the spice in the curry caused peoples hearts to beat faster after consumption, mimicking the after-effects of sex. Assuming that these findings of Western researchers can be applied to Southeast Asians, we can thus see that there is a scientific reason to explain the popularity of chilli-based cuisine in the region. Finally and most importantly, the popularity of chilli can be attributed to a self-perpetuating cycle of cultural transmission through immigration in a geographically connected area. Southeast Asian is a region of diverse cultures and religions and this regional trait expresses itself most clearly in the varied dietary restrictions among the different SEA countries. The Muslims abstain from pork, while the Hindus do not consume beef and the more religious Buddhists avoid meat altogether. However, chilli peppers are a plant-based cooking ingredient and do not violate any culinary restrictions of various SEA ethnic and religious populations. Being a geographically connected area that has long been involved in trade, SEA was exposed to the cultural transmission of chilli-based cuisines through local and foreign traders who eventually settled down in these lands as immigrants. As chillies became more widely used in local cuisines due to its culinary adaptability, more chillies were grown within the region itself and this resulted in a self-perpetuating cycle that cemented its place in Southeast Asian kitchens. A combination of these factors explains the prevalence of chilli in the Southeast Asian region and it also accounts for why Filipino and Northern Vietnamese cuisines incorporate less chilli in their food compared to their neighbours. For the Philippines, The Role of Chilli in Shaping SEA Identity Due to their popularity in Southeast Asian cuisines, chilli peppers have transcended culinary traditions and come to occupy an exalted role in shaping Southeast Asian identity today. Spicy food is now part of the identity of the region while the ability to tolerate and even relish chillies is now seen as an informal rite of passage among SEA communities today. Spicy food is now closely associated with the identity of the region in a globalised world. Southeast Asian cuisine seen in the eyes of non- Southeast Asian people is determined by the spiciness of the food and the excessive use of chillies in cooking. With the increasing influx of SE immigrants to Western countries, Westerners are exposed to Southeast Asian cuisine and because Southeast Asians use more spices and chillies as opposed to salt and pepper, Westerners have come to view chillies as a defining aspect of Southeast Asian cuisine. If you visit any hawker centre in Singapore today, an order of almost any dish will invariably be accompanied with chilli condiments ranging from chicken rice chilli to sambal goreng to the freshly cut chilli peppers soaked in soya sauce. Due to cultural perceptions of Southeast Asian food, more hawkers are inclined to include a chilli condiment with the kind of food they serve and this in turn exposes more people to chilli-based food that they come to see as normal or even synonymous with Southeast Asian cuisine. In many Southeast Asian communities, the ability to tolerate chilli-based food or even relish the taste of chilli peppers is the ultimate, albeit informal, rite of passage to adulthood. The irony of associating chillies with regional and personal SEA identity is that not all Southeast Asians embrace chilli as part of their diet. As mentioned earlier, Southeast Asians are supertasters and theoretically more sensitive to capsaicin. The absence of chilli in certain SEA based cuisines (Northern Vietnam Philippines)

Cellular Functions Essay -- Biology Biological Essays

Cellular Pathways Several principles govern metabolic pathways in the cell:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  A. Complex chemical transformations in the cell do not occur in a single reaction, but in a number of small steps that are connected in a pathway.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  B. Each reaction is catalyzed by a specific enzyme.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  C. Metabolic pathways is catalyzed by a specific enzyme.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  D. Many metabolic pathways are compartmentalized, with certain steps occurring inside an organelle.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  E. Metabolic pathways in organisms are regulated by the activities of a few enzyme.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Obtaining Energy and Electrons from Glucose   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The most common fuel for living cells is the sugar Glucose.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Cells trap energy while metabolizing glucose   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  If glucose is burned in a flame, it readily forms carbon dioxide, water, and a lot of energy----but only if oxygen gas(O2) is present. The balance equation for this combustion reaction is:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  C6 H12 O6 + 6 O2 ---- 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + ENERGY (HEAT AND LIGHT)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  This same equation applies to the metabolism of glucose in cells, except that metabolism is a multi-step, controlled series of reactions, ending up with almost half of the energy captured in ATP.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Three metabolic processes play roles in the utilization of glucose for energy: GLYCOSIS, CELLULAR RESPIRATION, AND FERMENTATION.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  A. Glycosis is a series of reactions that begins the metabolism of glucose in all cells and produces the three-carbon product pyruvate. A small amount of the energy stored in the glucose is released in usable form.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  B. Cellular Respiration occurs when the environment is aerobic (contains oxygen gas , O2), and essentially converts pyruvate to carbon (CO2). In the process, a great deal of the energy stored in the covalent bonds of pyruvate is released and trapped in ATP.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  C. Fermentation occurs when the environment is anaerobic (lacking in O2). Instead of energy-poor CO2, relatively energy-rich molecules such as lactic acid or ethanol are produced, so the energy extracted from glucose is far than under aerobic conditions.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Redox reactions transfer electrons and energy   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  a.Reaction in which one substance transfers one or more electron... ... in glycolysis. This molecule then passes through the rest of glycolysis and the citric acid cycle,where its energy is extracted in NADH and ATP.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  B. Lipids are converted to their substituents, glycerol and fatty acids. Glycerol is converted to dihydroxyacetone phosphate, an intermediatein glycolysis, and fatty acids to acetate and then acetyl CoA in the mitochondria. In both cases, further oxidation to CO2 and release of energy of energy then occur.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  C. Proteins are hydrolyzed to their amino acid building blocks. The 20 amino acids feeds into glycosis or the citric acid cycle at different points.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Catabolism and Anabolism are Integrated   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Glucose is an excellent source of energy. Polysaccharides and fats have no such catalytic roles. The level of acetylCoA rises as a fatty acids are broken down.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Allostery regulates metabolism   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, and the respiratory chain are regulated by allosteric control of the enzymes involved. The main control point in glycolysis is the enzyme PHOFRUCTOKINASE. The main control in the citric acid cycle is the enzyme ISOCITRATE DEHYROGENASE, which converts isocitrate to ketoglutarate..

ecosystems :: essays research papers

Factors of Community: 1.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Interactions between the climate and topography a.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã¢â‚¬Å"Rainfall, soil, temperature† 2.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The food and resources that grow 3.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Other specific resources necessary for a species to survive and adapt to. (Ecological niche) 4.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Species interaction 5.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Physical disturbances, addition/removal of certain species -These factors determine population sizes of an ecosystem. -Conditions of arctic regions don’t allow many animals to live there due to the low temperature. Niches: (all relationships in which species engage in order to survive and reproduce)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  -Fundamental Niche is a theoretical niche, where there are no constraints or limited resources)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  -Realized Niche is the actual niche, where there are constraints on resources) Symbiosis: (â€Å"living together† Species interacting in +, -, and = ways) Mutualism (++)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  -Both species in interaction benefit   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  -Obligatory Mutualism -One species cannot grow/reproduce without another species   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  EX. Yucca plants are only pollinated by Yucca moths.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  -Yucca moths only grow in the yucca plant and only eat Yucca seeds. Co-evolution   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  -The prey and predator build better defenses and counters to the other’s abilities.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  -Since the best of the prey/predator survive more often, they have more chance to reproduce.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  -Soon only the strong survive, thus, the best ways of countering reach the entire population.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  -EX. Camouflage, Mimicry (faking a characteristic), Spewing toxins, showing teeth, etc Carrying Capacity   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  -Maximum number of individuals that resources of environment can maintain.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  -Predator-Prey populations can fluctuate.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  -Predators may not adjust quickly enough to the abundance of prey.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  -Additional predators could also influence the rate.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  -As more predators reproduce and eat more prey, the prey population decreases.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  -As more prey dies, predators have less to eat and begin to die off.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  -With fewer predators, the prey once again starts to reproduce at a faster pace. Predator- Animals that feed on living organisms, but do not live on them Prey- targets of predators that are killed Parasites- Feeds on tissues of living organisms and live on them Host- the organism a parasite feeds on Effects of Parasites   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  -Feeds off the host’s tissue’s nutrition.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  -Alters how much energy enters the organism, and weakens it.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  -Can alter birth rates, can sterilize, or make organisms less attractive to mates.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  -Can open prey to diseases and infections.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  -Usually does not want to cause death, so that it can reproduce for a longer period of time Microparasites   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  -Rapid reproducers and personally infect the body.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  EX. Bacteria, Viruses, Protozoan Macroparasites   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  -Directly lay their eggs on the host.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  EX. Fleas, ticks, mites, lice Social Parasites   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  -Manipulate the social behavior of another species.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  EX. Cuckoos lay their eggs in nests of other species, which push the rightful eggs out.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  -The mother of the original eggs ends up feeding the cuckoos. Parasitoids   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  -Insect larvae that always kill what they eat (larvae and pupae of other insects)

Morality and Ethics Essay

As two members of our group are children of sea captains, the case of Exxon Valdez oil spill was extremely interesting for our team. It demonstrates that irresponsible behavior of people can lead to the most devastating human-caused environmental disasters of the past century. Multiple factors have been identified as contributing to the incident. In our group’s opinion, the most important are: the captain was drunk being on duty, the third mate failed to properly maneuver the vessel, possibly due to fatigue or excessive workload and finally, the Raycas radar system was broken, because the company found it too expensive to fix it. To begin with, we think that due to the restricted responsibilities of the crew comparing to the captain, its commitment was relatively low. Therefore the main motivation was their salary and working conditions didn’t play a role. Probably that is why sailors were ready to work overloaded shifts in order to earn as much as they could, to our mind, despite the fact that physically it was impossible. Thus the responsible sailor had to assess his ability to steer the ship before beginning the watch – in this case he had no right to do that being too tired. Talking about the captain of the ship, our group found him being the most irresponsible person in this situation. He did not act according to the ethical norms. Firstly, captain is the person, who is fully responsible for the ship and the crew, but he dared to exceed the allowed norm of the alcohol. Secondly, he had to insist on the radar repair. Finally, he is the one who is responsible for the crew’s adequate performance. Nevertheless, Exxon is fully liable for this disaster and the subsequent oil spill being the owner of the tanker. Hence, in our opinion, the company had to pay for the cleaning up the oil spill. To sum up, our group sees the ethical dilemma only concerning the crew. They had two choices only. On the one hand, when signing the contract they automatically agree to fulfill their duties, that is why no one can afford to skip the watch even if he fills tired. On the other hand, the third mate had no right to expose to danger the ship and the rest of the crew by taking the watch in unacceptable condition. We would like to add, that despite the fact that this was the most devastating human-caused environmental disasters, it pushed the government to develop new laws in this industry and turned to be a good lesson for the human beings overall.

Is the Chesapeake Bay at risk? Essay

The earth has witnessed a continued increase in its average surface and aerial temperatures, a phenomenon observed since the periods of industrial revolution struck the globe. Scientists and other experts on climate issues have even projected a further increase in this warming effect (Global warming) coupled with very catastrophic events that only a few people can bear to imagine. This effect has been mainly attributed to the emissions of greenhouse gases mostly generated by various industrial activities carried out by man. (K. Emanuel pp. 686-688) Physicists and chemists for instance, have even predicted this warming phenomenon to continue even beyond the year 2100 irrespective of whether or not the greenhouse gas discharges are stopped or not, owing to the large heat capacity of oceanic waters and also due to the fact that carbon dioxide has a substantially long lifetime in the atmosphere as depicted from its isotopes. Global warming is reported to have brought along with it fear and also panic all over the human race. Despite this modern generation’s acquaintance with lots of sophisticated technology, the increasingly warming earth still poises a deadly challenge which can no longer be ignored. Unpredictable climatic patterns, drastic rise in sea levels, expansion of deserts, retreating glaciers, permafrost, shrinking forests, disappearance and reemergence of certain species amongst many others are some of the adversities man will have to contend with now and in the near future. Chesapeake Bay is just but one of the many other features that have shown evidence of the possible global warming defects. This bay is not only a national treasure to both hunters and anglers, but it also performs a significant task for outdoor enthusiasts. Global warming effects on Chesapeake Bay Experts have expressed fears of loosing this paradise as a resultant consequence of global warming. According to extensive research carried out in this precious treasure of Chesapeake Bay, fish and even wildlife are the most affected by the dramatic events related to global warming. This is not unusual since changes attributed to global warming and their impacts on natural systems are witnessed globally. It will be a great loss to the government since major investments amounting billions of dollars have been channeled towards restoring its watershed in the recent past. (M. S. Kearney pp. 12-22) Is Chesapeake Bay at risk? The drastic climatic change has resulted into warming of Chesapeake air and even water and this will in turn alter the favorable composition of this habitat to the known species. Dead zones will then be expected to drastically increase as a result with dangerous algal blooms replacing the current inhabitants. This will see the area become prone to marine diseases and even enhance the spread of some deadly invasive species like nutria. (T. Edward pp. 1). The waterfowls and even the fishes are also at a risk poised by the sea levels that are rapidly rising. Coastal marshes amongst many other important habitats will be flooded putting this significant resource more at risk. Heat waves, droughts and storms are some catastrophic events resulting from extreme weather conditions that will significantly pollute the Chesapeake Bay; drastically reduce the quality of its waters and eventually making it a health hazard to the people (T. Edward pp. 1). The social life of the people who frequent this bay will thus be affected by these unfortunate results of global warming. The migration patterns observed annually by waterfowls are also expected to change significantly because of the changing climate recorded by scientists across the North America. ( R. W. Howarth pp. 163-186)These alterations in climate will further affect breeding grounds for this bird species and thus only few birds will be seen migrating to Chesapeake Bay annually. Available solutions and Conclusion Since human beings and other living creatures have terribly suffered the dire consequences from global warming, it is only necessary that permanent solutions are put into place to prevent possible extinction of these races. (Webster pp. 1844-1846. ) History has it that, human problems usually find their solution within the race itself. It is indeed our powerful decisions today that influence our tomorrow. The kind of energy resources we exploit, the type of infrastructure we erect and where we built them, what kind of impacts they are likely to cause on our environment or even climate in the future, we make the decisions and so we have the solution! In this particular case, the government or other relevant authority should put in place laws that govern pollution and particularly emission if greenhouse gases. Research has it that a reduction rate of 2% per year of these emissions will significantly improve chances of wildlife survival. These emissions are the major source responsible for global warming and thus it is essential that this initiative is extended to individuals and not solely performed by the government. The noble intent of wildlife managers on wildlife conservation and preservation for the future should be further busted by allocating adequate funds specifically dedicated to the completion of this task. The citizens also have a mandatory role to play in protecting the wildlife and the fish of Chesapeake Bay by recognizing the importance of shielding forests and wetlands, and even all other natural habitats against all ‘odds’ including the speedy urban development. Cited Work R. W. Howarth, et al. â€Å"The influence of climate on average nitrogen export from large watersheds in the Northeastern United States. † Biogeochemistry, 79,(2006) M. S. Kearney â€Å"The Potential for Significant Impacts on Chesapeake Bay,† Scientific Symposium Presentation Abstract, (Washington, D. C. : Climate Institute, 2006). K. Emanuel, â€Å"Increasing Destructiveness of Tropical Cyclones Over the Past 30 Years,† Nature. 436. (2005) Webster, et al. , â€Å"Changes in Tropical Cyclone Number, Duration, and Intensity in a Warming Environment,† Science 309 (2005) T. Edward Nickens, â€Å"National Wildlife ® magazine† (August / September 2002) T. Edward Nickens, â€Å"National Wildlife ® magazine† (December / January 2000)